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Go (programming language)

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the 2003 agent-based programming language, see <a href="Go!_(programming_language)" title="Go! (programming language)">Go! (programming language)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#e0e0e0;">Go</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Paradigm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Multi-paradigm_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-paradigm programming language">Multi-paradigm</a>: <a href="Concurrent_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Concurrent programming">concurrent</a>, <a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">imperative</a>, <a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">functional</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_design" title="Software design">Designed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Robert_Griesemer" title="Robert Griesemer">Robert Griesemer</a> <a href="Rob_Pike" title="Rob Pike">Rob Pike</a> <a href="Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a><a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Software developer">Developer</a></th><td class="infobox-data organiser">The Go Authors<a href="#cite_note-license-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">November 10, 2009 (2009-11-10)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">1.24.5

/ 8 July 2025 (8 July 2025)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Type_system" title="Type system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">Inferred</a>, <a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static</a>, <a href="Strong_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong typing">strong</a>,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <a href="Structural_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural typing">structural</a>,<a href="#cite_note-structural_typing-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="Nominal_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominal typing">nominal</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Memory_management" title="Memory management">Memory management</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">Garbage collection</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Implementation language</th><td class="infobox-data">Go, <a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly language</a> (gc); <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> (gofrontend)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Operating_system" title="Operating system">OS</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="DragonFly_BSD" title="DragonFly BSD">DragonFly BSD</a>, <a href="FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, <a href="Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, <a href="MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="NetBSD" title="NetBSD">NetBSD</a>, <a href="OpenBSD" title="OpenBSD">OpenBSD</a>,<a href="#cite_note-openbsd-9">[9]</a> <a href="Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs" title="Plan 9 from Bell Labs">Plan 9</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="Solaris_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solaris (operating system)">Solaris</a>, <a href="Windows" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows">Windows</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="3-clause_BSD" class="mw-redirect" title="3-clause BSD">3-clause BSD</a><a href="#cite_note-license-5">[5]</a> + <a href="Software_patents" class="mw-redirect" title="Software patents">patent</a> grant<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td class="infobox-data">.go</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.dev/">go.dev</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Major <a href="Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language implementation">implementations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">gc, gofrontend, <a href="Elements_Toolchain" class="mw-redirect" title="Elements Toolchain">gold</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="Oberon-2" title="Oberon-2">Oberon-2</a>, <a href="Limbo_(programming_language)" title="Limbo (programming language)">Limbo</a>, <a href="Active_Oberon" title="Active Oberon">Active Oberon</a>, <a href="Communicating_sequential_processes" title="Communicating sequential processes">communicating sequential processes</a>, <a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>, <a href="Oberon_(programming_language)" title="Oberon (programming language)">Oberon</a>, <a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a>, <a href="Newsqueak" title="Newsqueak">Newsqueak</a>, <a href="Modula-2" title="Modula-2">Modula-2</a>, <a href="Alef_(programming_language)" title="Alef (programming language)">Alef</a>, <a href="APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a>, <a href="BCPL" title="BCPL">BCPL</a>, <a href="Modula" title="Modula">Modula</a>, <a href="Occam_(programming_language)" title="Occam (programming language)">occam</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #EEEEEE;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="Crystal_(programming_language)" title="Crystal (programming language)">Crystal</a>, <a href="V_(programming_language)" title="V (programming language)">V</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Go is a <a href="High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level</a> <a href="General_purpose_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="General purpose programming language">general purpose programming language</a> that is <a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">statically typed</a> and <a href="Compiled_language" title="Compiled language">compiled</a>. It is known for the simplicity of its syntax and the efficiency of development that it enables by the inclusion of a large standard library supplying many needs for common projects.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> It was designed at <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a><a href="#cite_note-techcrunch-13">[13]</a> in 2007 by <a href="Robert_Griesemer" title="Robert Griesemer">Robert Griesemer</a>, <a href="Rob_Pike" title="Rob Pike">Rob Pike</a>, and <a href="Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a>, and publicly announced in November of 2009.<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a> It is <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntactically</a> similar to <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, but also has <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a>, <a href="Structural_type_system" title="Structural type system">structural typing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-structural_typing-7">[7]</a> and <a href="Communicating_sequential_processes" title="Communicating sequential processes">CSP</a>-style <a href="Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency (computer science)">concurrency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-boldly-14">[14]</a> It is often referred to as Golang to avoid ambiguity and because of its former domain name, <code>golang.org</code>, but its proper name is Go.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

There are two major implementations:

<ul><li>The original, <a href="Self-hosting_(compilers)" title="Self-hosting (compilers)">self-hosting</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <a href="Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> <a href="Toolchain" title="Toolchain">toolchain</a>, initially developed inside Google;<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></li>

<li>A frontend written in <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, called gofrontend,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> originally a <a href="GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GCC</a> frontend, providing gccgo, a GCC-based Go compiler;<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> later extended to also support <a href="LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a>, providing an LLVM-based Go compiler called gollvm.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></li></ul>

A third-party <a href="Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source compiler">source-to-source compiler</a>, GopherJS,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> transpiles Go to <a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> for <a href="Front-end_web_development" title="Front-end web development">front-end web development</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

Go was designed at <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a> in 2007 to improve <a href="Programming_productivity" title="Programming productivity">programming productivity</a> in an era of <a href="Multi-core_processor" title="Multi-core processor">multicore</a>, <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networked</a> <a href="Computer" title="Computer">machines</a> and large <a href="Codebase" title="Codebase">codebases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The designers wanted to address criticisms of other languages in use at Google, but keep their useful characteristics:<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">Static typing</a> and <a href="Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)" class="mw-redirect" title="Run time (program lifecycle phase)">run-time</a> efficiency (like <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Readability" title="Readability">Readability</a> and <a href="Usability" title="Usability">usability</a> (like <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>)<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li>

<li>High-performance <a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">networking</a> and <a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">multiprocessing</a></li></ul>

Its designers were primarily motivated by their shared <a href="Criticism_of_C%2B%2B" title="Criticism of C++">dislike of C++</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

Go was publicly announced in November 2009,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and version 1.0 was released in March 2012.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Go is widely used in production at Google<a href="#cite_note-faq-31">[31]</a> and in many other organizations and open-source projects.

In retrospect the Go authors judged Go to be successful due to the overall engineering work around the language, including the runtime support for the language's concurrency feature.

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Although the design of most languages concentrates on innovations in syntax, semantics, or typing, Go is focused on the software development process itself. ... The principal unusual property of the language itself—concurrency—addressed problems that arose with the proliferation of multicore CPUs in the 2010s. But more significant was the early work that established fundamentals for packaging, dependencies, build, test, deployment, and other workaday tasks of the software development world, aspects

that are not usually foremost in language design.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Branding_and_styling">Branding and styling</h3></div>

The <a href="Gopher" title="Gopher">Gopher</a> <a href="Mascot" title="Mascot">mascot</a> was introduced in 2009 for the <a href="Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a> launch of the language. The design, by <a href="Ren%C3%A9e_French" title="Renée French">Renée French</a>, borrowed from a c. 2000 <a href="WFMU" title="WFMU">WFMU</a> promotion.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

In November 2016, the Go and Go Mono fonts were released by type designers <a href="Charles_Bigelow_(type_designer)" title="Charles Bigelow (type designer)">Charles Bigelow</a> and <a href="Kris_Holmes" title="Kris Holmes">Kris Holmes</a> specifically for use by the Go project. Go is a <a href="Humanist_sans-serif" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanist sans-serif">humanist sans-serif</a> resembling <a href="Lucida_Grande" title="Lucida Grande">Lucida Grande</a>, and Go Mono is <a href="Monospaced" class="mw-redirect" title="Monospaced">monospaced</a>. Both fonts adhere to the <a href="WGL4" class="mw-redirect" title="WGL4">WGL4</a> character set and were designed to be legible with a large <a href="X-height" title="X-height">x-height</a> and distinct <a href="Letterform" title="Letterform">letterforms</a>. Both Go and Go Mono adhere to the <a href="DIN" class="mw-redirect" title="DIN">DIN</a> 1450 standard by having a slashed zero, lowercase <code>l</code> with a tail, and an uppercase <code>I</code> with serifs.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

In April 2018, the original logo was redesigned by brand designer Adam Smith. The new logo is a modern, stylized GO slanting right with trailing streamlines. (The Gopher mascot remained the same.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>)

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generics">Generics</h3></div>

The lack of support for <a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">generic programming</a> in initial versions of Go drew considerable criticism.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The designers expressed an openness to generic programming and noted that built-in functions were in fact type-generic, but are treated as special cases; Pike called this a weakness that might be changed at some point.<a href="#cite_note-append-38">[38]</a> The Google team built at least one compiler for an experimental Go dialect with generics, but did not release it.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

In August 2018, the Go principal contributors published draft designs for generic programming and <a href="Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">error handling</a> and asked users to submit feedback.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> However, the error handling proposal was eventually abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a>

In June 2020, a new draft design document<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> was published that would add the necessary syntax to Go for declaring generic functions and types. A code translation tool, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">

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</style>go2go, was provided to allow users to try the new syntax, along with a generics-enabled version of the online Go Playground.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

Generics were finally added to Go in version 1.18 on March 15, 2022.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Versioning">Versioning</h3></div>

Go 1 guarantees compatibility<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> for the language specification and major parts of the standard library. All versions up through the current Go 1.24 release<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> have maintained this promise.

Go uses a <code>go1.[major].[patch]</code> versioning format, such as <code>go1.24.0</code> and each major Go release is supported until there are two newer major releases. Unlike most software, Go calls the second number in a version the major, i.e., in <code>go1.24.0</code> the <code>24</code> is the major version.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> This is because Go plans to never reach 2.0, prioritizing backwards compatibility over potential breaking changes.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2></div>

Go is influenced by <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> (especially the <a href="Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs" title="Plan 9 from Bell Labs">Plan 9</a> <a href="Dialect_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialect (computing)">dialect</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>), but with an emphasis on greater simplicity and safety. It consists of:

<ul><li>A syntax and environment adopting patterns more common in <a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">dynamic languages</a>:<a href="#cite_note-go_lang_video_2009-51">[51]</a>

<ul><li>Optional concise variable declaration and initialization through <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">type inference</a> (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">x := 0</code> instead of <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">var x int = 0;</code> or <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">var x = 0;</code>)</li>

<li>Fast compilation<a href="#cite_note-techtalk-compiling-52">[52]</a></li>

<li>Remote package management (<code>go get</code>)<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and online package documentation<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Distinctive approaches to particular problems:

<ul><li>Built-in concurrency primitives: <a href="Light-weight_process" title="Light-weight process">light-weight processes</a> (goroutines), <a href="Channel_(programming)" title="Channel (programming)">channels</a>, and the <code>select</code> statement</li>

<li>An <a href="Protocol_(object-oriented_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (object-oriented programming)">interface</a> system in place of <a href="Virtual_inheritance" title="Virtual inheritance">virtual inheritance</a>, and type embedding instead of non-virtual inheritance</li>

<li>A toolchain that, by default, produces <a href="Static_library" title="Static library">statically linked</a> native binaries without external Go dependencies</li></ul></li>

<li>A desire to keep the language specification simple enough to hold in a programmer's head,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> in part by <a href="#Omissions">omitting features that are common in similar languages</a>.</li>

<li>25 reserved words</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3></div>

Go's syntax includes changes from <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> aimed at keeping code concise and readable. A combined declaration/initialization operator was introduced that allows the programmer to write <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">i := 3</code> or <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">s := "Hello, world!"</code>, <a href="Type_inference" title="Type inference">without specifying the types</a> of variables used. This contrasts with C's <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-c mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">int i = 3;</code> and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-c mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">const char *s = "Hello, world!";</code>. Go also removes the requirement to use parentheses in if statement conditions.

Semicolons still terminate statements;<a href="#cite_note-57">[a]</a> but are implicit when the end of a line occurs.<a href="#cite_note-59">[b]</a>

Methods may return multiple values, and returning a <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">result, err</code> pair is the conventional way a method indicates an error to its caller in Go.<a href="#cite_note-60">[c]</a> Go adds literal syntaxes for initializing struct parameters by name and for initializing <a href="Associative_array" title="Associative array">maps</a> and <a href="Array_slicing" title="Array slicing">slices</a>. As an alternative to C's three-statement <code>for</code> loop, Go's <code>range</code> expressions allow concise iteration over arrays, slices, strings, maps, and channels.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types">Types</h3></div>

Go has a number of built-in types, including numeric ones (byte, int64, float32, etc.), <a href="Boolean_data_type" title="Boolean data type">Booleans</a>, and byte strings (string). Strings are immutable; built-in operators and keywords (rather than functions) provide concatenation, comparison, and <a href="UTF-8" title="UTF-8">UTF-8</a> encoding/decoding.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> <a href="Record_(computer_science)" title="Record (computer science)">Record types</a> can be defined with the struct keyword.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a>

For each type T and each non-negative integer constant n, there is an <a href="Array_data_type" class="mw-redirect" title="Array data type">array type</a> denoted [n]T; arrays of differing lengths are thus of different types. <a href="Dynamic_array" title="Dynamic array">Dynamic arrays</a> are available as "slices", denoted []T for some type T. These have a length and a capacity specifying when new memory needs to be allocated to expand the array. Several slices may share their underlying memory.<a href="#cite_note-append-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a>

<a href="Pointer_(computer_programming)" title="Pointer (computer programming)">Pointers</a> are available for all types, and the pointer-to-T type is denoted *T. Address-taking and indirection use the & and * operators, as in C, or happen implicitly through the method call or attribute access syntax.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> There is no pointer arithmetic,<a href="#cite_note-noPointerArith-68">[d]</a> except via the special unsafe.Pointer type in the standard library.<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a>

For a pair of types K, V, the type map[K]V is the type mapping type-K keys to type-V values, though Go Programming Language specification does not give any performance guarantees or implementation requirements for map types. Hash tables are built into the language, with special syntax and built-in functions. chan T is a channel that allows sending values of type T between <a href="#Concurrency">concurrent Go processes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a>

Aside from its support for <a href="#Interfaces">interfaces</a>, Go's type system is <a href="Nominal_type_system" title="Nominal type system">nominal</a>: the type keyword can be used to define a new named type, which is distinct from other named types that have the same layout (in the case of a struct, the same members in the same order). Some conversions between types (e.g., between the various integer types) are pre-defined and adding a new type may define additional conversions, but conversions between named types must always be invoked explicitly.<a href="#cite_note-71">[67]</a> For example, the type keyword can be used to define a type for <a href="IPv4" title="IPv4">IPv4</a> addresses, based on 32-bit unsigned integers as follows:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>type ipv4addr uint32

</pre></div>

With this type definition, ipv4addr(x) interprets the uint32 value x as an IP address. Simply assigning x to a variable of type ipv4addr is a type error.<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a>

Constant expressions may be either typed or "untyped"; they are given a type when assigned to a typed variable if the value they represent passes a compile-time check.<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a>

<a href="Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">Function</a> types are indicated by the func keyword; they take zero or more <a href="Parameter_(computer_programming)" title="Parameter (computer programming)">parameters</a> and <a href="Return_statement" title="Return statement">return</a> zero or more values, all of which are typed. The parameter and return values determine a function type; thus, func(string, int32) (int, error) is the type of functions that take a string and a 32-bit signed integer, and return a signed integer (of default width) and a value of the built-in interface type error.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a>

Any named type has a <a href="Method_(computer_programming)" title="Method (computer programming)">method</a> set associated with it. The IP address example above can be extended with a method for checking whether its value is a known standard:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>// ZeroBroadcast reports whether addr is 255.255.255.255.

func (addr ipv4addr) ZeroBroadcast() bool {

return addr == 0xFFFFFFFF

}

</pre></div>

Due to nominal typing, this method definition adds a method to ipv4addr, but not on uint32. While methods have special definition and call syntax, there is no distinct method type.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interface_system"> Interface system</h4></div>

Go provides two features that replace <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">class inheritance</a>.

The first is embedding, which can be viewed as an automated form of <a href="Object_composition" title="Object composition">composition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gohotdraw-76">[72]</a>

The second are its <a href="Protocol_(object-oriented_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (object-oriented programming)">interfaces</a>, which provides <a href="Runtime_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Runtime polymorphism">runtime polymorphism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-balbaert-77">[73]</a>: 266 Interfaces are a class of types and provide a limited form of <a href="Structural_type_system" title="Structural type system">structural typing</a> in the otherwise nominal type system of Go. An object which is of an interface type is also of another type, much like <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> objects being simultaneously of a base and derived class. The design of Go interfaces was inspired by <a href="Protocol_(object-oriented_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (object-oriented programming)">protocols</a> from the Smalltalk programming language.<a href="#cite_note-78">[74]</a> Multiple sources use the term <a href="Duck_typing" title="Duck typing">duck typing</a> when describing Go interfaces.<a href="#cite_note-79">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[76]</a> Although the term duck typing is not precisely defined and therefore not wrong, it usually implies that type conformance is not statically checked. Because conformance to a Go interface is checked statically by the Go compiler (except when performing a type assertion), the Go authors prefer the term structural typing.<a href="#cite_note-81">[77]</a>

The definition of an interface type lists required methods by name and type. Any object of type T for which functions exist matching all the required methods of interface type I is an object of type I as well. The definition of type T need not (and cannot) identify type I. For example, if Shape, Square and Circle are defined as

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>import "math"

type Shape interface {

Area() float64

}

type Square struct { // Note: no "implements" declaration

side float64

}

func (sq Square) Area() float64 { return sq.side * sq.side }

type Circle struct { // No "implements" declaration here either

radius float64

}

func (c Circle) Area() float64 { return math.Pi * math.Pow(c.radius, 2) }

</pre></div>

then both a Square and a Circle are implicitly a Shape and can be assigned to a Shape-typed variable.<a href="#cite_note-balbaert-77">[73]</a>: 263–268 In formal language, Go's interface system provides <a href="Structural_type_system" title="Structural type system">structural</a> rather than <a href="Nominal_type_system" title="Nominal type system">nominal</a> typing. Interfaces can embed other interfaces with the effect of creating a combined interface that is satisfied by exactly the types that implement the embedded interface and any methods that the newly defined interface adds.<a href="#cite_note-balbaert-77">[73]</a>: 270

The Go standard library uses interfaces to provide genericity in several places, including the input/output system that is based on the concepts of Reader and Writer.<a href="#cite_note-balbaert-77">[73]</a>: 282–283

Besides calling methods via interfaces, Go allows converting interface values to other types with a run-time type check. The language constructs to do so are the type assertion,<a href="#cite_note-82">[78]</a> which checks against a single potential type:<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>var shp Shape = Square{5}

square, ok := shp.(Square) // Asserts Square type on shp, should work

if ok {

fmt.Printf("%#v\n", square)

} else {

fmt.Println("Can't print shape as Square")

}

</pre></div>and the type switch,<a href="#cite_note-83">[79]</a> which checks against multiple types:<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>func (sq Square) Diagonal() float64 { return sq.side * math.Sqrt2 }

func (c Circle) Diameter() float64 { return 2 * c.radius }

func LongestContainedLine(shp Shape) float64 {

switch v := shp.(type) {

case Square:

return v.Diagonal() // Or, with type assertion, shp.(Square).Diagonal()

case Circle:

return v.Diameter() // Or, with type assertion, shp.(Circle).Diameter()

default:

return 0 // In practice, this should be handled with errors

}

}

</pre></div>The empty interface <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">interface{}</code> is an important base case because it can refer to an item of any concrete type. It is similar to the Object class in <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a> or <a href="C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a> and is satisfied by any type, including built-in types like int.<a href="#cite_note-balbaert-77">[73]</a>: 284 Code using the empty interface cannot simply call methods (or built-in operators) on the referred-to object, but it can store the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">interface{}</code> value, try to convert it to a more useful type via a type assertion or type switch, or inspect it with Go's <code>reflect</code> package.<a href="#cite_note-84">[80]</a> Because <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">interface{}</code> can refer to any value, it is a limited way to escape the restrictions of static typing, like <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-c mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">void*</code> in C but with additional run-time type checks.

The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">interface{}</code> type can be used to model structured data of any arbitrary schema in Go, such as <a href="JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> or <a href="YAML" title="YAML">YAML</a> data, by representing it as a <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr">map[string]interface{}</code> (map of string to empty interface). This recursively describes data in the form of a dictionary with string keys and values of any type.<a href="#cite_note-85">[81]</a>

Interface values are implemented using pointer to data and a second pointer to run-time type information.<a href="#cite_note-86">[82]</a> Like some other types implemented using pointers in Go, interface values are <code>nil</code> if uninitialized.<a href="#cite_note-87">[83]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Generic_code_using_parameterized_types">Generic code using parameterized types</h4></div>

Since version 1.18, Go supports generic code using parameterized types.<a href="#cite_note-88">[84]</a>

Functions and types now have the ability to be generic using type parameters. These type parameters are specified within square brackets, right after the function or type name.<a href="#cite_note-89">[85]</a> The compiler transforms the generic function or type into non-generic by substituting type arguments for the type parameters provided, either explicitly by the user or type inference by the compiler.<a href="#cite_note-90">[86]</a> This transformation process is referred to as type instantiation.<a href="#cite_note-91">[87]</a>

Interfaces now can define a set of types (known as type set) using <code>|</code> (Union) operator, as well as a set of methods. These changes were made to support type constraints in generics code. For a generic function or type, a constraint can be thought of as the type of the type argument: a meta-type. This new <code>~T</code> syntax will be the first use of <code>~</code> as a token in Go. <code>~T</code> means the set of all types whose underlying type is <code>T</code>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[88]</a><div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>type Number interface {

~int | ~float64 | ~float32 | ~int32 | ~int64

}

func Add[T Number](nums ...T) T {

var sum T

for _, v := range nums {

sum += v

}

return sum

}

func main() {

add := Add[int] // Type instantiation

println(add(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)) // 15

res := Add(1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4, 5.5) // Type Inference

println(res) // +1.650000e+001

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Enumerated_types">Enumerated types</h4></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Enumerated_type#Go" title="Enumerated type">Enumerated type § Go</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enumerated_type&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

Go uses the <code>iota</code> keyword to create enumerated constants.<a href="#cite_note-93">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[90]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>type ByteSize int

const (

_ = iota // ignore first value by assigning to blank identifier; 0

KB ByteSize = 1 << (10 * iota) // 1 << (10 * 1) == 1 << 10 == 1024; in binary 10000000000

MB // 1 << (10 * 2) == 1048576; in binary 100000000000000000000

GB // 1 << (10 * 3) == 1073741824; in binary 1000000000000000000000000000000

)

</pre></div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Package_system">Package system</h3></div>

In Go's package system, each package has a path (e.g., <code>"compress/bzip2"</code> or <code>"golang.org/x/net/html"</code>) and a name (e.g., <code>bzip2</code> or <code>html</code>). By default other packages' definitions must always be prefixed with the other package's name. However the name used can be changed from the package name, and if imported as <code>_</code>, then no package prefix is required. Only the capitalized names from other packages are accessible: <code>io.Reader</code> is public but <code>bzip2.reader</code> is not.<a href="#cite_note-95">[91]</a> The <code>go get</code> command can retrieve packages stored in a remote repository<a href="#cite_note-96">[92]</a> and developers are encouraged to develop packages inside a base path corresponding to a source repository (such as example.com/user_name/package_name) to reduce the likelihood of name collision with future additions to the standard library or other external libraries.<a href="#cite_note-97">[93]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concurrency:_goroutines_and_channels"> Concurrency: goroutines and channels</h3></div>

The Go language has built-in facilities, as well as library support, for writing <a href="Concurrent_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Concurrent programming">concurrent programs</a>. The runtime is <a href="Asynchronous_I/O" title="Asynchronous I/O">asynchronous</a>: program execution that performs, for example, a network read will be suspended until data is available to process, allowing other parts of the program to perform other work. This is built into the runtime and does not require any changes in program code. The go runtime also automatically schedules concurrent operations (goroutines) across multiple CPUs; this can achieve parallelism for a properly written program.<a href="#cite_note-concurrency-is-not-98">[94]</a>

The primary concurrency construct is the goroutine, a type of <a href="Green_thread" title="Green thread">green thread</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-99">[95]</a>: 280–281 A function call prefixed with the <code>go</code> keyword starts a function in a new goroutine. The language specification does not specify how goroutines should be implemented, but current implementations multiplex a Go process's goroutines onto a smaller set of <a href="Thread_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thread (computer science)">operating-system threads</a>, similar to the scheduling performed in <a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a> and <a href="Haskell_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haskell (programming language)">Haskell's GHC runtime implementation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-phrasebook-100">[96]</a>: 10

While a standard library package featuring most of the classical <a href="Concurrency_control" title="Concurrency control">concurrency control</a> structures (<a href="Mutex" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutex">mutex</a> locks, etc.) is available,<a href="#cite_note-phrasebook-100">[96]</a>: 151–152 idiomatic concurrent programs instead prefer channels, which <a href="Message_passing" title="Message passing">send messages</a> between goroutines.<a href="#cite_note-101">[97]</a> Optional buffers store messages in <a href="FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)" title="FIFO (computing and electronics)">FIFO</a> order<a href="#cite_note-summerfield-102">[98]</a>: 43 and allow sending goroutines to proceed before their messages are received.<a href="#cite_note-:0-99">[95]</a>: 233

Channels are typed, so that a channel of type chan T can only be used to transfer messages of type T. Special syntax is used to operate on them; <-ch is an expression that causes the executing goroutine to block until a value comes in over the channel ch, while ch <- x sends the value x (possibly blocking until another goroutine receives the value). The built-in switch-like select statement can be used to implement non-blocking communication on multiple channels; see <a href="#Concurrencyexample">below</a> for an example. Go has a memory model describing how goroutines must use channels or other operations to safely share data.<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a>

The existence of channels does not by itself set Go apart from <a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">actor model</a>-style concurrent languages like Erlang, where messages are addressed directly to actors (corresponding to goroutines). In the actor model, channels are themselves actors, therefore addressing a channel just means to address an actor. The actor style can be simulated in Go by maintaining a one-to-one correspondence between goroutines and channels, but the language allows multiple goroutines to share a channel or a single goroutine to send and receive on multiple channels.<a href="#cite_note-phrasebook-100">[96]</a>: 147

From these tools one can build concurrent constructs like <a href="Thread_pool" title="Thread pool">worker pools</a>, pipelines (in which, say, a file is decompressed and parsed as it downloads), background calls with timeout, "fan-out" parallel calls to a set of services, and others.<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> Channels have also found uses further from the usual notion of interprocess communication, like serving as a concurrency-safe list of recycled buffers,<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> implementing <a href="Coroutine" title="Coroutine">coroutines</a> (which helped inspire the name goroutine),<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> and implementing <a href="Iterator" title="Iterator">iterators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[103]</a>

Concurrency-related structural conventions of Go (<a href="Channel_(programming)" title="Channel (programming)">channels</a> and alternative channel inputs) are derived from <a href="C._A._R._Hoare" class="mw-redirect" title="C. A. R. Hoare">Tony Hoare's</a> <a href="Communicating_sequential_processes" title="Communicating sequential processes">communicating sequential processes</a> model. Unlike previous concurrent programming languages such as <a href="Occam_(programming_language)" title="Occam (programming language)">Occam</a> or <a href="Limbo_(programming_language)" title="Limbo (programming language)">Limbo</a> (a language on which Go co-designer Rob Pike worked),<a href="#cite_note-108">[104]</a> Go does not provide any built-in notion of safe or verifiable concurrency.<a href="#cite_note-memmodel-109">[105]</a> While the communicating-processes model is favored in Go, it is not the only one: all goroutines in a program share a single address space. This means that mutable objects and pointers can be shared between goroutines; see <a href="#Lack_of_data_race_safety">§ Lack of data race safety</a>, below.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suitability_for_parallel_programming">Suitability for parallel programming</h4></div>

Although Go's concurrency features are not aimed primarily at <a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel processing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-concurrency-is-not-98">[94]</a> they can be used to program <a href="Shared-memory_architecture" title="Shared-memory architecture">shared-memory</a> <a href="Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">multi-processor</a> machines. Various studies have been done into the effectiveness of this approach.<a href="#cite_note-110">[106]</a> One of these studies compared the size (in <a href="Lines_of_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Lines of code">lines of code</a>) and speed of programs written by a seasoned programmer not familiar with the language and corrections to these programs by a Go expert (from Google's development team), doing the same for <a href="Chapel_(programming_language)" title="Chapel (programming language)">Chapel</a>, <a href="Cilk" title="Cilk">Cilk</a> and <a href="Intel_Threading_Building_Blocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel Threading Building Blocks">Intel TBB</a>. The study found that the non-expert tended to write <a href="Fork%E2%80%93join_model" title="Fork–join model">divide-and-conquer</a> algorithms with one go statement per recursion, while the expert wrote distribute-work-synchronize programs using one goroutine per processor core. The expert's programs were usually faster, but also longer.<a href="#cite_note-111">[107]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lack_of_data_race_safety">Lack of data race safety</h4></div>

Go's approach to concurrency can be summarized as "don't communicate by sharing memory; share memory by communicating".<a href="#cite_note-112">[108]</a> There are no restrictions on how goroutines access shared data, making <a href="Data_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Data race">data races</a> possible. Specifically, unless a program explicitly synchronizes via channels or other means, writes from one goroutine might be partly, entirely, or not at all visible to another, often with no guarantees about ordering of writes.<a href="#cite_note-memmodel-109">[105]</a> Furthermore, Go's internal data structures like interface values, slice headers, hash tables, and string headers are not immune to data races, so type and memory safety can be violated in multithreaded programs that modify shared instances of those types without synchronization.<a href="#cite_note-113">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-SPLASH2012-114">[110]</a> Instead of language support, safe concurrent programming thus relies on conventions; for example, Chisnall recommends an idiom called "aliases <a href="Exclusive_or" title="Exclusive or">xor</a> mutable", meaning that passing a mutable value (or pointer) over a channel signals a transfer of ownership over the value to its receiver.<a href="#cite_note-phrasebook-100">[96]</a>: 155 The gc toolchain has an optional data race detector that can check for unsynchronized access to shared memory during runtime since version 1.1,<a href="#cite_note-115">[111]</a> additionally a best-effort race detector is also included by default since version 1.6 of the gc runtime for access to the <code>map</code> data type.<a href="#cite_note-116">[112]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Binaries">Binaries</h3></div>

The linker in the gc toolchain creates statically linked binaries by default; therefore all Go binaries include the Go runtime.<a href="#cite_note-117">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[114]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omissions">Omissions</h3></div>

Go deliberately omits certain features common in other languages, including <a href="Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">(implementation) inheritance</a>, <a href="Assertion_(software_development)" title="Assertion (software development)">assertions</a>,<a href="#cite_note-119">[e]</a> <a href="Pointer_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pointer arithmetic">pointer arithmetic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-noPointerArith-68">[d]</a> <a href="Type_conversion#Implicit_type_conversion" title="Type conversion">implicit type conversions</a>, <a href="Union_type#Untagged_unions" title="Union type">untagged unions</a>,<a href="#cite_note-120">[f]</a> and <a href="Tagged_union" title="Tagged union">tagged unions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[g]</a> The designers added only those facilities that all three agreed on.<a href="#cite_note-124">[117]</a>

Of the omitted language features, the designers explicitly argue against assertions and pointer arithmetic, while defending the choice to omit type inheritance as giving a more useful language, encouraging instead the use of <a href="Protocol_(object-oriented_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (object-oriented programming)">interfaces</a> to achieve <a href="Dynamic_dispatch" title="Dynamic dispatch">dynamic dispatch</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[h]</a> and <a href="Composition_over_inheritance" title="Composition over inheritance">composition</a> to reuse code. Composition and <a href="Delegation_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delegation (programming)">delegation</a> are in fact largely automated by struct embedding; according to researchers Schmager et al., this feature "has many of the drawbacks of inheritance: it affects the public interface of objects, it is not fine-grained (i.e, no method-level control over embedding), methods of embedded objects cannot be hidden, and it is static", making it "not obvious" whether programmers will overuse it to the extent that programmers in other languages are reputed to overuse inheritance.<a href="#cite_note-gohotdraw-76">[72]</a>

<a href="Exception_handling" title="Exception handling">Exception handling</a> was initially omitted in Go due to lack of a "design that gives value proportionate to the complexity".<a href="#cite_note-126">[118]</a> An exception-like panic/recover mechanism that avoids the usual <code>try-catch</code> control structure was proposed<a href="#cite_note-127">[119]</a> and released in the March 30, 2010 snapshot.<a href="#cite_note-128">[120]</a> The Go authors advise using it for unrecoverable errors such as those that should halt an entire program or server request, or as a shortcut to propagate errors up the stack within a package.<a href="#cite_note-129">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[122]</a> Across package boundaries, Go includes a canonical error type, and multi-value returns using this type are the standard idiom.<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Style">Style</h2></div>

The Go authors put substantial effort into influencing the style of Go programs:

<ul><li>Indentation, spacing, and other surface-level details of code are automatically standardized by the <code>gofmt</code> tool. It uses tabs for indentation and blanks for alignment. Alignment assumes that an editor is using a fixed-width font.<a href="#cite_note-131">[123]</a> <code>golint</code> does additional style checks automatically, but has been deprecated and archived by the Go maintainers.<a href="#cite_note-132">[124]</a></li>

<li>Tools and libraries distributed with Go suggest standard approaches to things like API documentation (<code>godoc</code>),<a href="#cite_note-eff-133">[125]</a> testing (<code>go test</code>), building (<code>go build</code>), package management (<code>go get</code>), and so on.</li>

<li>Go enforces rules that are recommendations in other languages, for example banning cyclic dependencies, unused variables<a href="#cite_note-134">[126]</a> or imports,<a href="#cite_note-135">[127]</a> and implicit type conversions.</li>

<li>The omission of certain features (for example, functional-programming shortcuts like <code>map</code> and Java-style <code>try</code>/<code>finally</code> blocks) tends to encourage a particular explicit, concrete, and imperative programming style.</li>

<li>On day one the Go team published a collection of Go idioms,<a href="#cite_note-eff-133">[125]</a> and later also collected code review comments,<a href="#cite_note-136">[128]</a> talks,<a href="#cite_note-137">[129]</a> and official blog posts<a href="#cite_note-138">[130]</a> to teach Go style and coding philosophy.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tools">Tools</h2></div>

The main Go distribution includes tools for <a href="Build_automation" title="Build automation">building</a>, <a href="Unit_testing" title="Unit testing">testing</a>, and <a href="Static_program_analysis" title="Static program analysis">analyzing</a> code:

<ul><li><code>go build</code>, which builds Go binaries using only information in the source files themselves, no separate makefiles</li>

<li><code>go test</code>, for unit testing and microbenchmarks as well as fuzzing</li>

<li><code>go fmt</code>, for formatting code</li>

<li><code>go install</code>, for retrieving and installing remote packages</li>

<li><code>go vet</code>, a static analyzer looking for potential errors in code</li>

<li><code>go run</code>, a shortcut for building and executing code</li>

<li><code>go doc</code>, for displaying documentation</li>

<li><code>go generate</code>, a standard way to invoke code generators</li>

<li><code>go mod</code>, for creating a new module, adding dependencies, upgrading dependencies, etc.</li>

<li><code>go tool</code>, for invoking developer tools (added in Go version 1.24)</li></ul>

It also includes <a href="Profiling_(computer_programming)" title="Profiling (computer programming)">profiling</a> and <a href="Debugging" title="Debugging">debugging</a> support, <a href="Fuzzing" title="Fuzzing">fuzzing</a> capabilities to detect bugs, <a href="Run_time_(program_lifecycle_phase)" class="mw-redirect" title="Run time (program lifecycle phase)">runtime</a> instrumentation (for example, to track <a href="Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" title="Garbage collection (computer science)">garbage collection</a> pauses), and a <a href="Data_race" class="mw-redirect" title="Data race">data race</a> detector.

Another tool maintained by the Go team but is not included in Go distributions is <code>gopls</code>, a language server that provides <a href="Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">IDE</a> features such as <a href="Intelligent_code_completion" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent code completion">intelligent code completion</a> to <a href="Language_Server_Protocol" title="Language Server Protocol">Language Server Protocol</a> compatible editors.<a href="#cite_note-139">[131]</a>

An ecosystem of third-party tools adds to the standard distribution, such as <code>gocode</code>, which enables code autocompletion in many text editors, <code>goimports</code>, which automatically adds/removes package imports as needed, and <code>errcheck</code>, which detects code that might unintentionally ignore errors.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hello_world">Hello world</h3></div>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>package main

import "fmt"

func main() {

fmt.Println("hello world")

}

</pre></div>

where "fmt" is the package for formatted <a href="Input/output" title="Input/output">I/O</a>, similar to C's <a href="C_file_input/output" title="C file input/output">C file input/output</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[132]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concurrency">Concurrency</h3></div>

The following simple program demonstrates Go's <a href="#Concurrency">concurrency features</a> to implement an asynchronous program. It launches two lightweight threads ("goroutines"): one waits for the user to type some text, while the other implements a timeout. The select statement waits for either of these goroutines to send a message to the main routine, and acts on the first message to arrive (example adapted from David Chisnall's book).<a href="#cite_note-phrasebook-100">[96]</a>: 152

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>package main

import (

"fmt"

"time"

)

func readword(ch chan string) {

fmt.Println("Type a word, then hit Enter.")

var word string

fmt.Scanf("%s", &word)

ch <- word

}

func timeout(t chan bool) {

time.Sleep(5 * time.Second)

t <- false

}

func main() {

t := make(chan bool)

go timeout(t)

ch := make(chan string)

go readword(ch)

select {

case word := <-ch:

fmt.Println("Received", word)

case <-t:

fmt.Println("Timeout.")

}

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Testing">Testing</h3></div>

The testing package provides support for automated testing of go packages.<a href="#cite_note-141">[133]</a> Target function example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>func ExtractUsername(email string) string {

at := strings.Index(email, "@")

return email[:at]

}

</pre></div>

Test code (note that assert keyword is missing in Go; tests live in <filename>_test.go at the same package):

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>import (

"testing"

)

func TestExtractUsername(t *testing.T) {

t.Run("withoutDot", func(t *testing.T) {

username := ExtractUsername("r@google.com")

if username != "r" {

t.Fatalf("Got: %v\n", username)

}

})

t.Run("withDot", func(t *testing.T) {

if username != "jonh.smith" {

}

})

}

</pre></div>

It is possible to run tests in parallel.

The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pkg.go.dev/net/http">net/http</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[134]</a> package provides support for creating web applications.

This example would show "Hello world!" when localhost:8080 is visited.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-go mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>package main

import (

"fmt"

"log"

"net/http"

)

func helloFunc(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {

fmt.Fprintf(w, "Hello world!")

}

func main() {

http.HandleFunc("/", helloFunc)

log.Fatal(http.ListenAndServe(":8080", nil))

}

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

Go has found widespread adoption in various domains due to its robust standard library and ease of use.<a href="#cite_note-code-mag-2022-11-24-143">[135]</a>

Popular applications include: <a href="Caddy_(web_server)" title="Caddy (web server)">Caddy</a>, a web server that automates the process of setting up HTTPS,<a href="#cite_note-linuxmag-213-2018-144">[136]</a> <a href="Docker_(software)" title="Docker (software)">Docker</a>, which provides a platform for containerization, aiming to ease the complexities of software development and deployment,<a href="#cite_note-codemag-20220831-145">[137]</a> <a href="Kubernetes" title="Kubernetes">Kubernetes</a>, which automates the deployment, scaling, and management of containerized applications,<a href="#cite_note-codemag-20230224-146">[138]</a> <a href="CockroachDB" title="CockroachDB">CockroachDB</a>, a distributed SQL database engineered for scalability and strong consistency,<a href="#cite_note-sigmod20-cockroach-147">[139]</a> and <a href="Hugo_(software)" title="Hugo (software)">Hugo</a>, a static site generator that prioritizes speed and flexibility, allowing developers to create websites efficiently.<a href="#cite_note-linuxjournal-20220913-148">[140]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2></div>

The interface system, and the deliberate omission of inheritance, were praised by Michele Simionato, who likened these characteristics to those of <a href="Standard_ML" title="Standard ML">Standard ML</a>, calling it "a shame that no popular language has followed [this] particular route".<a href="#cite_note-149">[141]</a>

Dave Astels at <a href="Engine_Yard" title="Engine Yard">Engine Yard</a> wrote in 2009:<a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">Go is extremely easy to dive into. There are a minimal number of fundamental language concepts and the <a href="Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> is clean and designed to be clear and unambiguous.

Go is still experimental and still a little rough around the edges.</blockquote>

Go was named Programming Language of the Year by the <a href="TIOBE_Programming_Community_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="TIOBE Programming Community Index">TIOBE Programming Community Index</a> in its first year, 2009, for having a larger 12-month increase in popularity (in only 2 months, after its introduction in November) than any other language that year, and reached 13th place by January 2010,<a href="#cite_note-151">[143]</a> surpassing established languages like <a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>. By June 2015, its ranking had dropped to below 50th in the index, placing it lower than <a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a> and <a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a> But as of January 2017, its ranking had surged to 13th, indicating significant growth in popularity and adoption. Go was again awarded TIOBE Programming Language of the Year in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-153">[145]</a>

<a href="Bruce_Eckel" title="Bruce Eckel">Bruce Eckel</a> has stated:<a href="#cite_note-154">[146]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">The complexity of <a href="C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> (even more complexity has been added in the new C++), and the resulting impact on productivity, is no longer justified. All the hoops that the C++ programmer had to jump through in order to use a C-compatible language make no sense anymore -- they're just a waste of time and effort. Go makes much more sense for the class of problems that C++ was originally intended to solve.</blockquote>

A 2011 evaluation of the language and its gc implementation in comparison to C++ (<a href="GNU_Compiler_Collection" title="GNU Compiler Collection">GCC</a>), Java and <a href="Scala_(programming_language)" title="Scala (programming language)">Scala</a> by a Google engineer found:

<blockquote class="templatequote">Go offers interesting language features, which also allow for a concise and standardized notation. The compilers for this language are still immature, which reflects in both performance and binary sizes.</blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— R. Hundt<a href="#cite_note-155">[147]</a></div>

The evaluation got a rebuttal from the Go development team. Ian Lance Taylor, who had improved the Go code for Hundt's paper, had not been aware of the intention to publish his code, and says that his version was "never intended to be an example of idiomatic or efficient Go"; Russ Cox then optimized the Go code, as well as the C++ code, and got the Go code to run almost as fast as the C++ version and more than an order of magnitude faster than the code in the paper.<a href="#cite_note-156">[148]</a>

<ul><li>Go's <a href="Null_pointer" title="Null pointer">nil</a> combined with the lack of <a href="Algebraic_types" class="mw-redirect" title="Algebraic types">algebraic types</a> leads to difficulty handling failures and <a href="Base_case_(recursion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Base case (recursion)">base cases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-yager-157">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-dobronszki-158">[150]</a></li>

<li>Go does not allow an opening brace to appear on its own line, which forces all Go programmers to use the same brace style.<a href="#cite_note-159">[151]</a></li>

<li>Go has been criticized for focusing on simplicity of implementation rather than correctness and flexibility; as an example, the language uses <a href="POSIX" title="POSIX">POSIX</a> file semantics on all platforms, and therefore provides incorrect information on platforms such as <a href="Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> (which do not follow the aforementioned standard).<a href="#cite_note-160">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[153]</a></li>

<li>A study showed that it is as easy to make concurrency bugs with message passing as with shared memory, sometimes even more.<a href="#cite_note-162">[154]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming_dispute">Naming dispute</h2></div>

On November 10, 2009, the day of the general release of the language, Francis McCabe, developer of the <a href="Go!_(programming_language)" title="Go! (programming language)">Go! programming language</a> (note the exclamation point), requested a name change of Google's language to prevent confusion with his language, which he had spent 10 years developing.<a href="#cite_note-163">[155]</a> McCabe raised concerns that "the 'big guy' will end up steam-rollering over" him, and this concern resonated with the more than 120 developers who commented on Google's official issues thread saying they should change the name, with some<a href="#cite_note-infoweek-164">[156]</a> even saying the issue contradicts Google's motto of: <a href="Don't_be_evil" title="Don't be evil">Don't be evil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-issue9-165">[157]</a>

On October 12, 2010, the filed public issue ticket was closed by Google developer Russ Cox (@rsc) with the custom status "Unfortunate" accompanied by the following comment: <blockquote>"There are many computing products and services named Go. In the 11 months since our release, there has been minimal confusion of the two languages."<a href="#cite_note-issue9-165">[157]</a></blockquote>

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<ul><li><a href="Fat_pointer" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat pointer">Fat pointer</a></li>

<li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison of programming languages</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha">

<li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> But "To allow complex statements to occupy a single line, a semicolon may be omitted before a closing ) or }".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> "if the newline comes after a token that could end a statement, [the lexer will] insert a semicolon".<a href="#cite_note-58">[57]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Usually, exactly one of the result and error values has a value other than the type's zero value; sometimes both do, as when a read or write can only be partially completed, and sometimes neither, as when a read returns 0 bytes. See <a href="Semipredicate_problem#Multivalued_return" title="Semipredicate problem">Semipredicate problem: Multivalued return</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-noPointerArith-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-noPointerArith_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-noPointerArith_68-1">b</a> Language FAQ "Why is there no pointer arithmetic? Safety ... never derive an illegal address that succeeds incorrectly ... using array indices can be as efficient as ... pointer arithmetic ... simplify the implementation of the garbage collector...."<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Language FAQ "Why does Go not have assertions? ...our experience has been that programmers use them as a crutch to avoid thinking about proper error handling and reporting...."<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Language FAQ "Why are there no untagged unions...? [they] would violate Go's memory safety guarantees."<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Language FAQ "Why does Go not have variant types? ... We considered [them but] they overlap in confusing ways with interfaces.... [S]ome of what variant types address is already covered, ... although not as elegantly."<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a> (The tag of an interface type<a href="#cite_note-121">[115]</a> is accessed with a type assertion<a href="#cite_note-122">[116]</a>).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Questions "How do I get dynamic dispatch of methods?" and "Why is there no type inheritance?" in the language FAQ.<a href="#cite_note-langfaq-4">[4]</a>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article incorporates material from the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://golang.org/doc/go_tutorial.html">official Go tutorial</a>, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license.</div>

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/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</li>

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<li id="cite_note-infoweek-164"><a href="#cite_ref-infoweek_164-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFClaburn2009" class="citation news cs1">Claburn, Thomas (November 11, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100722010320/http://www.informationweek.com/news/software/web_services/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=221601351">"Google 'Go' Name Brings Accusations Of Evil'"</a>. InformationWeek. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informationweek.com/news/software/web_services/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=221601351">the original</a> on July 22, 2010. Retrieved January 18, 2010.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-issue9-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-issue9_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-issue9_165-1">b</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/golang/go/issues/9#issuecomment-66047478">"Issue 9 - go — I have already used the name for *MY* programming language"</a>. Github. <a href="Google_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Google Inc.">Google Inc.</a> Retrieved October 12, 2010.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFDonovanKernighan2015" class="citation book cs1">Donovan, Alan; Kernighan, Brian (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.informit.com/store/go-programming-language-9780134190440">The Go Programming Language</a> (1st ed.). <a href="Addison-Wesley_Professional" class="mw-redirect" title="Addison-Wesley Professional">Addison-Wesley Professional</a>. p. 400. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-13-419044-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBodner2021" class="citation book cs1">Bodner, Jon (March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/learning-go/9781492077206/">Learning Go</a> (1st ed.). <a href="O'Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly</a>. p. 352. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781492077213</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Go_(programming_language)" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Go (programming language)">Go (programming language)</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.dev">Official website</a> </li></ul>

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</style><div id="Programming_languages625" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a>

<ul><li><a href="Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">classic</a></li>

<li><a href="COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming language)">Erlang</a>

<ul><li><a href="Elixir_(programming_language)" title="Elixir (programming language)">Elixir</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a></li>

<li><a href="Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="OCaml" title="OCaml">OCaml</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming language)">Swift</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Lists: <a href="List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Google_free_and_open-source_software55" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Google_free_and_open-source_software55" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a> free and open-source software</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chromium_(web_browser)" title="Chromium (web browser)">Chromium</a></li>

<li><a href="Gemini_(language_model)" title="Gemini (language model)">Gemma</a></li>

<li><a href="OpenRefine" title="OpenRefine">OpenRefine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tesseract_(software)" title="Tesseract (software)">Tesseract</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Programming languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_(programming_language)" title="Carbon (programming language)">Carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Sawzall_(programming_language)" title="Sawzall (programming language)">Sawzall</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frameworks and development tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Angular_(web_framework)" title="Angular (web framework)">Angular</a></li>

<li><a href="AngularJS" title="AngularJS">AngularJS</a></li>

<li><a href="Bazel_(software)" title="Bazel (software)">Bazel</a></li>

<li><a href="Blockly" title="Blockly">Blockly</a></li>

<li><a href="Brotli" title="Brotli">Brotli</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Closure_Tools" title="Google Closure Tools">Closure Tools</a></li>

<li><a href="Cpplint" title="Cpplint">Cpplint</a></li>

<li><a href="FlatBuffers" title="FlatBuffers">FlatBuffers</a></li>

<li><a href="Flutter_(software)" title="Flutter (software)">Flutter</a></li>

<li><a href="Ganeti" title="Ganeti">Ganeti</a></li>

<li><a href="Gears_(software)" title="Gears (software)">Gears</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerrit_(software)" title="Gerrit (software)">Gerrit</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Guava" title="Google Guava">Guava</a></li>

<li><a href="Guetzli" title="Guetzli">Guetzli</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Guice" title="Google Guice">Guice</a></li>

<li><a href="GVisor" title="GVisor">gVisor</a></li>

<li><a href="Kubernetes" title="Kubernetes">Kubernetes</a></li>

<li><a href="LevelDB" title="LevelDB">LevelDB</a></li>

<li><a href="Libvpx" title="Libvpx">libvpx</a></li>

<li><a href="Lighthouse_(software)" title="Lighthouse (software)">Lighthouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Namebench" title="Namebench">Namebench</a></li>

<li><a href="Nomulus" title="Nomulus">Nomulus</a></li>

<li><a href="OR-Tools" title="OR-Tools">OR-Tools</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer_(library)" title="Polymer (library)">Polymer</a></li>

<li><a href="Protocol_Buffers" title="Protocol Buffers">Protocol Buffers</a></li>

<li><a href="TensorFlow" title="TensorFlow">TensorFlow</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operating systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Android_(operating_system)" title="Android (operating system)">Android</a></li>

<li><a href="ChromiumOS" title="ChromiumOS">ChromiumOS</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuchsia_(operating_system)" title="Fuchsia (operating system)">Fuchsia</a></li>

<li><a href="GLinux" title="GLinux">gLinux</a></li>

<li><a href="Goobuntu" title="Goobuntu">Goobuntu</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Google_LLC_v._Oracle_America%2C_Inc." title="Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.">Google LLC v. Oracle America, Inc.</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_Source_Security_Foundation" title="Open Source Security Foundation">Open Source Security Foundation</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Summer_of_Code" title="Google Summer of Code">Summer of Code</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rob_Pike75" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Rob_Pike75" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Rob_Pike" title="Rob Pike">Rob Pike</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operating systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Inferno_(operating_system)" title="Inferno (operating system)">Inferno</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Newsqueak" title="Newsqueak">Newsqueak</a></li>

<li><a href="Limbo_(programming_language)" title="Limbo (programming language)">Limbo</a></li>

<li><a href="Sawzall_(programming_language)" title="Sawzall (programming language)">Sawzall</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Software</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="The_Practice_of_Programming" title="The Practice of Programming">The Practice of Programming</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Unix_Programming_Environment" title="The Unix Programming Environment">The Unix Programming Environment</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ren%C3%A9e_French" title="Renée French">Renée French</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_V._Shaney" title="Mark V. Shaney">Mark V. Shaney</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ken_Thompson90" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ken_Thompson90" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Ken_Thompson" title="Ken Thompson">Ken Thompson</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operating systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Inferno_(operating_system)" title="Inferno (operating system)">Inferno</a></li></ul>

</ul>

<ul><li><a href="Belle_(chess_machine)" title="Belle (chess machine)">Belle</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Travel_(video_game)" title="Space Travel (video game)">Space Travel</a></li>

<li><a href="Thompson_shell" title="Thompson shell">Thompson shell</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37227#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata968" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37227#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata968" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1893916">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7725033-3">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2012000746">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007581576905171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/db1c8d6e-07da-4d7c-9a17-93c6c01b07bf">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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